Understanding Literary Latin Abbreviations

In research and academic writing, students may encounter a wide variety of Latin abbreviations that may be unfamiliar to them. A failure to understand such a notation can radically alter a student’s understanding of the related materials, allowing inaccuracies and errors to creep into their work.

General Latin Abbreviations

c., ca., or cca. – circa – Used to indicate an approximate date when precision escapes the writer or is unknown.
cf. – confer – indicates materials that should be compared or taken into account when evaluating the current information being presented.
et al. – et alii – is used to indicate multiple authors of a work whose names have been omitted. Frequently found in source citations.
e.g. – exempli gratia – means the following text is an example of a condition or argument. Often this abbreviation is confused with the abbreviation “i.e.” which actually means “in other words” and is used to indicate a conclusion to a thought or argument, rather than an example supporting it.
ff. – foliis – usually found after a page notation in a source citation indicating the page noted is only the beginning of the source article which fills additional pages after that. Though its use has fallen out of favor, it may still be encountered in older materials.
Ibid. – ibidem – Used in footnotes and endnotes to indicate the associated passage is from the same source as the previous footnote or endnote.
id./ead. – idem/eadem – Used to indicate the same author (male or female, respectively) is being cited to avoid repeating the name of the author in subsequent citations. Found primarily in Oxford-style bibliographies, though possible in other styles.
i.a. – inter alia – indicates the following item is part of a list, as in causative factors or conditions, offered as one example of the list.
i.e. – id est – is used to indicate a conclusion or to indicate a summarization or clarification of an issue, subject or argument being presented. Often confused with the abbreviation “e.g.” which actually indicates the following text is a supportive example of a given argument, issue or subject.
Loc. Cit. – Loco Citato – indicates the materials marked may be found at the same location or page as the previously cited materials of the source specified. Preceded by the identification of the work being cited.
N.B. – nota bene – used particularly in mathematical, statistical or scientific reporting to indicate facts, results or information of a critical nature in understanding the subject matter. It is usually written using majuscule (or capitalized) letters.
nem. con. – nemine contradicente – indicates a vote or decision made without opposition (but not necessarily unanimously). May be used to indicate a statement or conclusion that seems to have no dissenting opinions or evidence, but for which additional research may be necessary.
op. cit. – opera citato – indicates the referenced materials cited may be found in the same article or book cited, but on another page within the work. Preceded by a designation of which author or work is being cited.
P.S. – post scriptum – indicates material that is added to a letter or other correspondence after the signature has been put into place. Seldom seen in research or citation materials, but not impossible.
Q.E.D. – quod erat demonstrandum – typically found in mathematical research at the end of a mathematical proof, indicating the conclusion or statement which the mathematical proof supports.
q.v. – quod vide – indicates a term or phrase whose definition is contained somewhere else in the current document or book. Multiple terms or phrases are indicated by “qq.v.”
Re – in re – used as a prefix to the subject of various correspondences and occasionally white, green or blue papers.
s.o.s. – si opus sit – Most commonly thought by most to mean “save our ship,” this abbreviation is actually used to indicate actions that may be optional or necessary, depending upon the prevailing conditions or events. The phrase’s meaning is to the effect of “if there is a need for” or “if the occasion requires.”
viz. – videlicet – in essence, the opposite of “i.e.” in that viz. indicates a detailed describtion of something stated previously, such as a list of members or components to an object or concept nearing the quality of a complete list. In essence, it indicates an expansion of a vague reference into a fully detailed description.
vs or v – versus – indicating a contrasting circumstance or concept or an adversarial condition exists. Frequently found in legal citations, though can be found anywhere in which two distinct topics, ideas or parties are contrasted or are adversarial in nature.

Less Common Abbreviations

in litt. – in litteris – Indicates materials locate or found in a letter or other correspondence which relates to the matter at hand. Usually followed by the citation of the letter or correspondence in question.
et seq./et seqq. – et sequens/et sequentes (plural) - indicates one or more additional items or events.
loq. – loquitur – used to indicate the cited material is a speech or lecture.
N.N. – nomen nescio – used in older citations to indicate the name of the author is not known or is anonymous or as an indicator that someone mentioned in a source or work is an unknown person, though it is known they exist or existed.
Q.E.C. – quod erat construendum – indicating something that was to be created or constructed for a specific purpose but which was not or which was abandoned in mid-construction.
Q.E.F. – quod erat faciendum – indicating an act that was to be performed but was not or was abandoned before action was completed.
sc. – scilicet – roughly equal in meaning to “viz.,” meaning an explanation or clarification of an item or concept immediately preceding.
s.v. – sub verbo – indicating the definition of a word or phrase is defined under the definition of another word or phrase.
v.i – vide infra – indicates the matter is related to or defined in text following the current location.
v.s – vide supra – indicates the matter is related to or defined in text prior to the current location.

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